The Hungarian Observer (Budapest, 1996)
2 Reforms and revolutions T hroughout the history of Hungary we can trace the interactions of reforms and revolutions. Naturally enough, there are differences too since the circumstances will vary. Similarities, however, are obvious and very illuminating - particularly in retrospect, i.e. looking back on events centuries or several decades later. The revolution and war of independence of 1848-49 was preceded by reform efforts of two decades. Enlightened aristocrats, members of land-owning families in favour of social reform, politically active lawyers, writers, journalists joined forces to loosen the strict feudal system of Hungary and achieve at least partial independence from Austria. The political struggle remained legal, its battles were fought in the national assembly - the ‘Reform Diet’ as it is called by Hungarian historiography. Eventually, the restrictions placed on national existence led to a demonstration and uprising - part of the European revolutionary wave of 1848 - in Pest and Buda on 15th March. The uprising was followed by an armed war of independence. The Hungarians were defeated and forced to surrender. Backed by Russian military support, Austrian Emperor Francis Joseph crushed the revolution. Reprisals. Executions. Flights abroad. The nation responded to the oppression with passive resistance. Then came the understanding and acceptance by both sides that a compromise based on mutual interests - reform - was reasonable and necessary. This recognition led to the Ausgleich (‘Compromise’) of 1867, an agreement between the Austrian Government in Vienna and moderate Hungarian nationalists, providing for the transformation of the Austrian Monarchy into the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary. Thus a compromise was created, but Hungary would never have achieved the rights and possibilities gained through this agreement without the freedom fight of 1848-49. The last decades of the 19th century fully justified the supporters of the Compromise. That was the time when Budapest became a metropolis - truly cultured, truly European. Palaces and avenues were built. For the 1000th anniversary of the Magyar settlement work on the Parliament - one of the most impressive Parliament buildings in Europe - was almost completed and an underground line 3 kilometres long was opened: the second underground railway in Europe, after the London tube. This progress was ruptured by World War I. Hungary suffered a staggering setback. Growing social discontent, intensifying demands for an immediate end to the war temporarily strengthened a liberal democratic movement in favour of carrying through social and democratic reforms, which sought an armistice with the allies. The hesitancy of the liberal republican leaders, the radicalization of the masses, lack of support for the new Hungarian Republic among the allied governments and the “export” of the Soviet revolution led to the establishment of a proletarian dictatorship in March 1919. New possibilities for a democratic experiment opened up between 1945 and 1948: post-war reconstruction, a multi-party system, and a coalition government. With the backing of the Soviet Red Army the communist party aggressively strove for hegemony. They did their best to eliminate supposed as well as real adversaries of the dictatorship and to purge “extremists” from the party. Reforms of any kind became possible again only after Stalin’s death, when Imre Nagy replaced Mátyás Rákosi as Prime Minister, but at that time he emphasized the reform of the existing socialist system. Only during the historic days of 1956 did Imre Nagy decide on national independence, Hungary’s withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact, and found himself - inevitably - in opposition to the Soviet Union sending troops and tanks to crush the revolution. 1956 was a revolution and freedom fight. One event led to another, the radicalizing masses demanded a change in the system. For a whole constellation of reasons - the world balance of power and Europe being divided on many issues at the time - the lonely revolution was doomed to failure. Despite the failure, 1956 fundamentally determined Hungary's further development in the 20th century. Following the reprisals and the executions it was largely because of 1956 that János Kádár tried to find a Hungarian way to socialism, often labelled as ‘soft dictatorship’. Even Imre Nagy's reform ideas were gradually realized, although withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact became possible only after the change of the regime in 1991. Reforms and revolutions. From the modern history of Hungary it appears that great changes in society were always preceded by reforms. Radical methods, revolutionary endeavours followed only if the reform attempts at change were hampered by external circumstances. Revolutions, however, even if they failed, paved the way for reforms to come. Now we are living in an era of overall change - reform, and not just in Hungary. Europe is being transformed. While taking care to preserve their roots and their own characters, the European states are working hard to operate different structures of cooperation extending over the entire continent. Hungary is preparing to become a fully-fledged member of this rearranging Europe. ^2 THE HUNGARIAN OBSERVER